First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd
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John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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The rights of Christina G. Georgantopoulou and George A. Georgantopoulos to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018932756

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78630-140-6

Table of Contents

Cover

Preface

1 Pipe Networks

1.1. Introduction
1.2. Calculation of pipe networks
1.3. Problem-solving methodology for pipe networks
1.4. Overall approach for the network calculation
1.5. The Hazen–Williams equation for network analysis
1.6. Hazen–Williams and Darcy–Weisbach identity
1.7. Hardy–Cross method
1.8. Formulae
1.9. Questions
1.10. Problems with solutions
1.11. Problems to be solved

2 Open Channel Flow

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Non-dimensional parameters in open channels
2.3. Open channel types of flow
2.4. Open channels’ geometrical shapes
2.5. The hydraulic jump
2.6. Calculation of the depth flow after the hydraulic jump
2.7. Velocity distribution
2.8. Velocity distribution at the vertical level
2.9. Uniform flow in open channel equations – Chezy type
2.10. Best hydraulic cross-sectional area
2.11. Specific flow energy
2.12. Channels of rectangular cross-sectional area
2.13. Open channels’ more adequate cross-sectional areas
2.14. Non-uniform flow in open channels
2.15. Channels of non-rectangular cross-section area
2.16. Formulae
2.17. Questions
2.18. Problems with solutions
2.19. Problems to be solved

3 Boundary Layer

3.1. Introduction
3.2. Laminar incompressible boundary layer
3.3. Characteristic values of the boundary layer
3.4. Flow types in the boundary layer
3.5. Formulae
3.6. Questions
3.7. Problems with solutions
3.8. Problems to be solved

4 Flow Around Solid Bodies

4.1. Introduction
4.2. Geometrical characteristics of an airfoil
4.3. Kutta–Joukowski equation
4.4. Aerodynamic paradox
4.5. Pressure distribution in an airfoil
4.6. Lift curve
4.7. Drag force and drag coefficient curve
4.8. Parameters that influence the drag coefficient C_D
4.9. External flow around industrial solid bodies
4.10. Drag in fluid drops and gas bubbles in creeping flow
4.11. Formulae
4.12. Questions
4.13. Problems with solutions
4.14. Problems to be solved

Appendices

Appendix 1: Symbols and Units
Appendix 2: Tables and Diagrams of Natural Values
Appendix 3: Symbols and Basic Conversion Factors
Appendix 4: International Standard Atmosphere, SI Units
Appendix 5: International Standard Atmosphere, in BS
Appendix 6: NACA Airfoils’ Diagrams

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

1 Pipe Networks

Table 1.1. Coefficient of losses for T-90 nodes
Table 1.2. Equivalent length values
Table 1.3. Values of the coefficient W_m
Table 1.4. Values of the coefficient W_E
Table (5a). Calculating tables of the water distribution example with the Hardy–Cross method, first iteration of calculations
Table (5b). Calculating tables of the water distribution example with the Hardy–Cross method, second iteration of calculations
Table (5c). Calculating tables of the water distribution example with the Hardy–Cross method, third iteration of calculations
Table (6). Network data

2 Open Channel Flow

Table 2.1. Values of n for the Manning and Kutter types and m for the Bazin type
Table 2.2a. Values of the roughness coefficient k according to Manning (R_h in m, V in m/s)
Table 2.2b. Values of roughness coefficient k according to Manning

4 Flow Around Solid Bodies

Table 4.1. Drag coefficient values
Table 4.2. Drag coefficient values for 3D bodies
Table 4.3. Drag coefficient values of NACA airfoils
Table 4.4. Drag coefficient values
Table 4.5. Coefficient values for three types of NACA

Appendix 2: Tables and Diagrams of Natural Values

Table A2.1. Specific temperatures (in regular conditions) of gases and fluids
Table A2.2. Specific water temperature from 0°C to 100°C (p = 101.3 kPa)
Table A2.3. Characteristics of gases
Table A2.4. Fluid properties (density ρ, kinematic viscosity ν, surface stress σ and compressibility β) at various temperatures
Table A2.5. Values of Χ and Υ used in the nomograph of viscosity
Table A2.6. Viscosity grades (VG) ISΟ
Table A2.7. Correspondence of the scales of lubricants’ viscosity
Table A2.8. Resistance in acid
Table A2.9. Resistance in inorganic substances
Table A2.10. Resistance in organic substances
Table A2.11. Resistance in fuels – lubricants
Table A2.12. Resistance in water and water solutions
Table A2.13. Galvanic metals series in sea water that is in motion
Table A2.14. Corrosion rate of metals

List of Illustrations

1 Pipe Networks

Figure 1.1. Tree-system-type pipe network
Figure 1.2. Grid pattern networks
Figure 1.3. Loop pattern network
Figure 1.4. Schematic representation of a pipe network
Figure 1.5. Pipe network nodes
Figure 1.6. Nodes and branches of a pipe network
Figure 1.7. Loop pattern network
Figure 1.8. Loop pattern of network
Figure 1.9. Closed-loop pattern of a network
Figure 1.10. Pipe network with a common point for the pipes
Figure 1.11. Pipe network connected to a tank
Figure 1.12. Pipe network for water distribution
Figure (2)
Figure (3a)
Figure (3b)
Figure (3c)
Figure (4)
Figure (5)
Figure (6)
Figure (7)
Figure (5)

2 Open Channel Flow

Figure 2.1. Dimensions of an open channel
Figure 2.2. Types of flow in open channels
Figure 2.3. Rectangular cross-sectional channel
Figure 2.4. Trapezoidal cross-sectional channel
Figure 2.5. Circular cross-sectional channel
Figure 2.6. Horizontal channel with a rectangular cross-sectional area
Figure 2.7. Rectangular and random cross-sectional areas of channels
Figure 2.8. Laminar flow in an open channel
Figure 2.9. Velocity distribution in an open channel
Figure 2.10. Non-uniform flow in open channels
Figure 2.11. Dimensions of the cross-sectional area of the open channel
Figure 2.12. Open channel with trapezoidal cross-sectional area
Figure 2.13. Dimensions and relationships in a cross-sectional area of an open channel
Figure 2.14. Specific energy variation
Figure 2.15. Rectangular cross-sectional area of an open channel
Figure 2.16. Trapezoidal cross-sectional area of an open channel
Figure 2.17. Trapezium open channel that provides the smallest wet perimeter
Figure 2.18. Non-uniform flow in an open channel
Figure (1)
Figure (2)
Figure (3)
Figure (5)
Figure (7)
Figure (8)
Figure (10)

3 Boundary Layer

Figure 3.1. Characteristics of the boundary layer
Figure 3.2. Variation of the boundary layer thickness
Figure 3.3. Boundary layer thickness
Figure 3.4. The three flow areas inside the boundary layer
Figure 3.5. Velocity distribution and flow separation
Figure 3.6. Flow over an airfoil without turbulence
Figure 3.7. Flow over an airfoil with separation areas, where x, L, Re_x and Re_L have been previously defined

4 Flow Around Solid Bodies

Figure 4.1. Airfoil types
Figure 4.2. Airfoil’s geometrical characteristics
Figure 4.3. Aerodynamic forces on an airfoil
Figure 4.4. Direction of zero lift depends on the airfoil type and shape
Figure 4.5. Characteristics of a part of an infinitive wing
Figure 4.6. Forces distribution along an airfoil
Figure 4.7. Aerodynamic force and components on a body inside air flow
Figure 4.8. Stagnation point
Figure 4.9. Pressure distribution around an airfoil
Figure 4.10. Pressure force distribution around an airfoil
Figure 4.11. Lift curve for a symmetrical airfoil
Figure 4.12. Lift curve for an asymmetrical airfoil
Figure 4.13. Laminar and turbulent boundary layers around a sphere
Figure 4.14. Variation of the parasite drag with aspect ratio
Figure 4.15. Polar curve
Figure 4.16. Variation of drag coefficient with aspect ratio
Figure 4.17. Drag coefficient with respect to relative roughness
Figure 4.18. Types of flow and vortices
Figure 4.19. Turbulent flow around a cylinder
Figure 4.20. Variation of drag coefficient values with Re
Figure 4.21. Three faces inside the boundary layer
Figure 4.22. Flow separation
Figure 4.23. Pressure coefficient distribution
Figure 4.24. Coefficient of drag according to M values
Figure 4.25. Characteristic aerodynamic shape of an ordinary car
Figure 4.26. Surface vessels’ flow characteristics
Figure 4.27. Pressure coefficient values in a railway with and without the influence of the train
Figure 4.28. Effect of the angle of attack on the flow around an airfoil
Figure 4.29. Flow around an airfoil with and without detachment
Figure 4.30. Plain flap
Figure 4.31. Split flap
Figure 4.32. Polar curves of the wings for various high-lift arrangements
Figure 4.33. High-lift leading edge arrangement
Figure 4.34. Lift curves for two different types of wings
Figure 4.35. Injection on the airfoil through jet
Figure 4.36. Blown flap arrangement
Figure 4.37. Suction arrangement on a wing
Figure 4.38. Wing bound vortex
Figure 4.39. Horseshoe vortex model: wing vorticity
Figure 4.40. Experimental visualization of a flow around a wing: bound vortex
Figure 4.41. Downwash and upwash
Figure 4.42. Lateral gust effect
Figure (7a)
Figure (7b)
Figure (8)

Appendix 2: Tables and Diagrams of Natural Values

Figure A2.1. Vapor pressure of volatile materials
Figure A2.2. Octane vapor pressure
Figure A2.3. Ethanol vapor pressure
Figure A2.4. Nomograph of viscosity calculation
Figure A2.5. Drag coefficient of a sphere
Figure A2.6. Drag coefficient of a sphere, disk and cylinder

Preface

This book presents an extended and detailed analysis of both the flow phenomena in closed and open channels and the flows around solid bodies. It comprises two volumes. This book is a specialized resource for those students, engineers and researchers who want to focus on the industrial applications of flows and study the fascinating world of internal and external flow phenomena.

We have both had extensive experience in teaching, studying and researching fluids since the completion of our respective PhD theses. We felt that it was time to write about the practical and analytical aspects of flow applications, all of which can be applied in industrial flows, to support researchers, engineering students and industrial engineers in the field of fluids in order to optimize their work in “flows”.

For the first author, the “fluids direction” began in the early stages of her PhD thesis study in Computational Fluid Dynamics in 1998 at the National Technical University of Athens. The second author’s knowledge of the fluids’ path is very extensive, obtained from more than 45 years of studies and work involved in his PhD thesis and further research work at the University of Patras, as well as through his position as Professor of Aerodynamics at the Hellenic Air Force Academy, spanning more than 35 years.

We have both gained substantial experience in Fluid Mechanics research through numerous publications, presentations at international conferences, academic textbook authoring, teaching through international experiences and collaborations. However, we felt that more should be offered to the Fluid Mechanics community, and hence this book.

Although we both have experience in writing for academic textbooks, this is our first publication that caters to international students, researchers and engineers, considering the industrial phenomena that are met in international industries and we have tried to present most of the applications in flows inside or around bodies. This book is based on books written previously by us on Fluid Mechanics and on Aerodynamics, but for the first time our work focuses on the practical aspects of industrial internal and external flows.

Christina, the first author, offers this textbook to the Bahrain polytechnic engineering students and all the industrial delegates who have worked with her in “flows” for many years. She also wishes to express her appreciation for her colleagues, namely Payal Modi, for the thousands of hours of constructive discussions and collaborations in fluids aspects, to Lazaros E. Mavromatidis for his support during the publishing procedure, to her father George who has been her mentor for all these years and to Stephanie Sutton and Amerissa Kapela for their continuing support with the quality of the academic English language. Additionally, George, the second author, wishes to share his more than 40 years of experience in fluids with the fluids community around the world and support them in their “flows” work as best he can.

We both have a special sentimental feeling for this book in that we are extremely proud that we have been able to write, publish and offer it to you, hoping that it will really support you in your fluids journey. We have both worked on fluids with a passion not only for our students, but also to honor our colleagues around the world. We are equally happy to say that the Fluid Mechanics community has been served by the same family for more than 40 years. We hope that we will be physically and mentally healthy to continue to serve our students and support our colleagues in the fluids aspects in the future.

We hope that you will enjoy this book and be engaged with the fascinating world of flows.

Christina G. GEORGANTOPOULOU

George A. GEORGANTOPOULOS

February 2018